Empress Matilda and the Anarchy: A Comprehensive Briefing

Written by Simon Williams

Empress Matilda was named heir to the English throne by her father Henry I, but her cousin Stephen seized the crown in 1135, starting a nineteen-year civil war. The conflict ended with Matilda’s son Henry II recognised as Stephen’s heir, and the Plantagenet dynasty began.

Key Facts

• Born: 1102, died 1167
• Father: King Henry I of England
• First husband: Holy Roman Emperor Henry V (married 1114, widowed 1125)
• Second husband: Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou (married 1128)
• Key son: Henry II, King of England (born 1133)
• War: The Anarchy, 1135 to 1154
• Title claimed: Domina Anglorum (Lady of the English), 1141
• Settlement: Treaty of Wallingford, 1153

The career of Empress Matilda (1102 to 1167) represents a seminal moment in English history, marking the first time a woman sought to claim the throne of England in her own right. Following the death of her father, King Henry I, in 1135, England descended into a nineteen-year civil war known as ’The Anarchy’ after Matilda’s cousin, Stephen of Blois, seized the crown.

Matilda’s life was defined by extreme adaptability and the exercise of power across three distinct phases: her tenure as Empress of the Holy Roman Empire, her military and political campaign for the English throne, and her final years as a powerful advisor to her son, King Henry II. Despite failing to secure an official coronation, Matilda’s tenacity ultimately preserved her father’s lineage and established the Plantagenet dynasty. Her legacy has shifted from medieval critiques of her ’unfeminine’ boldness to modern recognition of her as a formidable political architect.

I. Foundations of Power: Early Life and the Imperial Education

Matilda’s early life provided the requisite education and status to function as a significant political force.

A. The Imperial Marriage

• Marriage to Henry V: Born in 1102 to Henry I and Edith Matilda of Scotland, Matilda was betrothed at age seven to the Holy Roman Emperor, Henry V.
• Imperial Education: Sent to Germany in 1110, she was educated under Archbishop Bruno of Trier. She became fluent in Latin and Middle High German and was trained in grammar and imperial politics.
• Wielding Authority: By age 16, Matilda acted as regent for her husband over his Italian holdings. She also served as a recognised intercessor, negotiating on behalf of figures such as Godfrey, Count of Leuven.

B. The Succession Crisis

• The White Ship Disaster: In 1120, Matilda’s brother and the sole legitimate male heir, William Adelin, died in a shipwreck.
• Oaths of Allegiance: Henry I forced his barons in 1127 to swear an oath accepting Matilda as his heir if he died without male issue.
• Second Marriage: Following the death of the Emperor in 1125, Matilda was married to Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou, in 1128. This marriage was intended to secure alliances and produce male heirs, resulting in the birth of the future Henry II in 1133.

II. The Anarchy: The Struggle for the English Throne (1135 to 1154)

The civil war between Matilda and Stephen was characterised by shifting loyalties, sieges, and the strategic use of fortified bases.

A. The Outbreak of War

When Henry I died in 1135, Stephen of Blois executed a coup, supported by the people of London and the Archbishop of Canterbury. Matilda launched a military invasion in 1139, supported by several key figures:

• Robert, Earl of Gloucester: Matilda’s half-brother and her primary military commander.
• King David I of Scotland: Her uncle, who invaded Northern England.
• Strategic Bases: Matilda operated out of Arundel Castle in Sussex and Oxford Castle.

B. The Peak and Pivot (1141)

• The Battle of Lincoln: In February 1141, Matilda’s forces defeated Stephen, capturing him and imprisoning him at Bristol Castle.
• Lady of the English: Matilda assumed the title Domina Anglorum (Lady of the English) and prepared for her coronation in London.
• The London Failure: Matilda’s refusal to grant traditional tax concessions and favours enraged the Londoners. An armed mob forced her to flee the city just prior to her coronation.
• Prisoner Exchange: Following the capture of her supporter, Robert of Gloucester, by the forces of Stephen’s wife (also named Matilda), a prisoner exchange was forced. Stephen was released in exchange for Robert, prolonging the conflict.

C. The Escape from Oxford (1142)

While besieged at Oxford Castle in the winter of 1142, Matilda famously escaped capture by being lowered from St George’s Tower by ropes. Dressed in white to camouflage herself against the snow, she crossed the frozen River Isis and walked six miles to safety in Abingdon.

III. Political Instruments and Governance Strategies

Matilda did not rely solely on military force; she utilised established medieval methods of female power to gain and maintain influence.

A. Charters and Donations

Matilda used the issuance and confirmation of charters to solidify alliances.

• Confirmation of Stephen’s Gifts: In acts such as the ’Act for Andwell’, she confirmed gifts previously made by King Stephen. This reassured religious houses that their lands would remain secure under her rule, regardless of the war’s outcome.
• Religious Patronage: She made significant donations to monasteries and churches (e.g., Godstow), which served both spiritual purposes and as displays of sovereign authority.

B. Peaceful Brokering

Despite chroniclers’ claims of her arrogance, Matilda demonstrated a capacity for diplomacy, notably during the negotiations for the prisoner exchange in 1141 and later as a mediator between her son and various church and political figures.

IV. Resolution and Later Governance

Matilda eventually withdrew from the direct conflict in England in 1147 following the death of Robert of Gloucester, shifting her focus to her son’s succession.

A. The Treaty of Westminster (1153)

A compromise was reached in 1153 after Henry Plantagenet invaded England. The Treaty (also known as the Treaty of Wallingford) established that Stephen would remain king until his death, after which he would be succeeded by Henry.

B. Advisor to the King

When Henry II ascended the throne in 1154, Matilda remained an influential figure:

• Governance of Normandy: She governed the Duchy of Normandy on behalf of her son.
• Thomas Becket Dispute: Matilda was a vocal advisor on church-state relations. She famously opposed the appointment of Thomas Becket as Archbishop of Canterbury, predicting he would cause strife between the crown and the church.
• International Intercessor: Figures such as Pope Anastasius IV and King Louis VII of France wrote directly to Matilda, recognising her influence over Henry II and seeking her aid in diplomatic matters.

V. Historiographical Perspectives

The perception of Matilda has evolved significantly across centuries of historical scholarship.

VI. Legacy and Summary of Accomplishments

Empress Matilda’s career is encapsulated by her epitaph: ’Great by birth, greater by marriage, greatest in her offspring.’ However, the historical record suggests her own actions were the true driver of her legacy:

• First Female Heir: She was the first woman named as successor to the English throne.
• Dynastic Architect: Her dogged determination during the Anarchy ensured the throne passed to the Plantagenet line, which ruled England for 331 years.
• Political Survivor: She successfully navigated the politics of two major medieval powers, the Holy Roman Empire and England, and transitioned into a respected elder statesman and advisor.
• Cultural Symbol: Her miraculous escapes and military tenacity broke the contemporary mould of the ’passive’ medieval noblewoman.

This article is part of The Anarchy series. Explore all articles at The Anarchy.

Deepen Your Understanding

History rarely happens in isolation. The people, places, and events on this page are part of a much bigger story. The articles below trace the threads that connect to what you have just read; follow whichever pulls at your curiosity.

→ The Anarchy Civil War in Medieval England: A focused year-by-year timeline of the military and political events covered in this briefing

→ Empress Matilda and the Civil War in England: A closer look at Matilda’s character and governance, and her thirteen years advising Henry II after the war

→ Empress Matilda: The Woman Who Nearly Became England’s First Queen: The full biography of the woman at the heart of the conflict

→ Castles of Conflict: Fortresses of the Anarchy Era: How the sieges and castle warfare of the Anarchy changed military architecture forever

→ The Church and the Crown: Religion’s Role in the Anarchy: The role of bishops and abbots in deciding who would ultimately prevail

→ Henry II: A Monarch of Legal Reforms: How Matilda’s son turned the chaos of the Anarchy into the foundations of English common law

People Also Ask

Why is Empress Matilda called ’Empress’ if she was never crowned Queen of England?

The title ’Empress’ refers to her first marriage to Henry V, the Holy Roman Emperor. She was crowned Empress in Rome and used the title for the rest of her life, as it held significantly higher prestige than ’Countess’ or even ’Queen’. When campaigning for the English throne, she officially styled herself Domina Anglorum (Lady of the English), a title chosen to assert sovereignty without making the formal claim of ’Queen’ that her opponents could challenge on the grounds of her sex and marital status.

Did Empress Matilda ever actually rule England?

Briefly, yes, but never as formally crowned queen. In 1141, after capturing King Stephen at the Battle of Lincoln, she controlled much of the country and moved to London for her coronation. However, her refusal to grant Londoners the traditional tax concessions a new ruler was expected to provide caused a popular uprising that forced her to flee the city just days before the ceremony. She held effective authority in parts of England for several years but was never able to consolidate that authority into a stable reign.

How did Empress Matilda escape the siege of Oxford Castle?

This is one of the most celebrated episodes of the Middle Ages. In the winter of 1142, Matilda was trapped in Oxford Castle by Stephen’s besieging forces. Under cover of night, she and three knights wrapped themselves in white cloaks to blend into the heavy snow lying on the ground. They were reportedly lowered from the castle walls by ropes, then crossed the frozen River Thames on foot and walked through what had been enemy-held territory to reach safety at Abingdon. Contemporary chroniclers recorded the escape, and it has remained one of the defining images of the Anarchy ever since.

What was the Anarchy like for the people who lived through it?

Contemporary chroniclers described it as a time when ’Christ and his saints slept’. Because central royal authority had collapsed, local barons built unauthorised ’adulterine’ castles and conducted private wars against one another. Crops were burned, towns were pillaged, and both factions levied heavy taxes on the peasantry to fund their campaigns. The machinery of royal justice, which Henry I had worked hard to build, effectively stopped functioning across large areas of the country. Some regions suffered more than others, but the disruption was widespread and lasted for close to two decades.

Why did Empress Matilda eventually withdraw from the fight?

After her half-brother and chief military commander, Robert of Gloucester, died in 1147, Matilda’s capacity to sustain a military campaign in England collapsed. Without Robert’s strategic leadership and the network of baronial support he maintained, she could no longer hold the field effectively. Rather than surrender her claim, she shifted her focus: she withdrew to Normandy in 1148 and spent the remainder of her life acting as a skilled political adviser and occasional regent for her son Henry, who eventually secured the throne as Henry II in 1154.

Is Empress Matilda related to the current British Royal Family?

Yes. Every English and British monarch from Henry II onwards is a direct descendant of Matilda. By refusing to abandon her claim and ensuring the succession passed to her son, she secured the survival of the Norman-Plantagenet bloodline. The Plantagenets ruled England for 331 years, and through the complex network of dynastic marriages and successions that followed, every subsequent ruling house traces its lineage back through Henry II to Empress Matilda and, through her, to William the Conqueror.

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Primary Sources and Further Reading

• The Gesta Stephani, an anonymous contemporary chronicle of Stephen’s reign, is one of the two principal narrative sources for the Anarchy and is notably critical of Matilda.
• William of Malmesbury, Historia Novella (circa 1142), offers a near-contemporary account more sympathetic to Matilda’s cause.
• Marjorie Chibnall, The Empress Matilda: Queen Consort, Queen Mother and Lady of the English (Blackwell, 1991), remains the standard twentieth century academic biography.
• Catherine Hanley, Matilda: Empress, Queen, Warrior (Yale University Press, 2019), is the leading modern reassessment of her political career.
• Edmund King, King Stephen (Yale University Press, 2010), sets Matilda’s campaign within the wider narrative of the civil war.
• David Crouch, The Reign of King Stephen, 1135 to 1154 (Routledge, 2000), examines the political and military course of the Anarchy in detail.

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